The Lichen Study

The tree that I chose was near the Life Sciences Research Building on West Green 

close to Union  Street. 

 The species looks to be Acer rufinerve, a snakebark maple native to Japanese mountain forests. This demonstrates the paired branching and the type of leaf to identify the maple species. 

This is the north side of the tree. This is the direction that most lichens were present. 

It was the side facing the parking lot. To give a size reference, the lichens were clearly identifiable across the street.

This is the eastern direction. This was the direction with the least amount 

of lichen colonies present. 

The southern direction seems minimal, but the colonies blended in with the tree unless one was close to the tree. The colonies were little on their own, but clumped together enough to receive a "3" in all squares. 

The western direction had one square that received a "3", the square at the top, but the rest of this direction had little lichen. 

Embedded Water

Our water footprint measures the amount of water used to produce each of the goods and services we use. This footprint can be measured for a single process  There are three types of water footprints: green, blue, and grey. The green water footprint is water from precipitation that is stored in the root zone of the soil and evaporated, transpired or incorporated by plants. The blue water footprint is water that has been sourced from surface or groundwater resources and is either evaporated, incorporated into a product or taken from one body of water and returned to another, or returned at a different time.  The grey water footprint is the amount of fresh water required to assimilate pollutants to meet specific water quality standards.

, for a product, or for an entire company. It can tell us how much water is being consumed by a particular country or how much water is being used globally and from what source.

Embedded water, a blue water footprint, is the water used to produce food and non-food products. According to Waterwise, sixty five percent of the water that we consume is from the foods we eat. To put this in perspective, it takes about 1,100 drops of water to produce one drop of coffee and it takes about 136 drops of water to produce one drop of tea. In just one tomato there is 13 liters of water and in one glass of milk there is 200 liters. It is estimated that by 2025, two-thirds of the global population will live in areas of water stress.

Today, I ate ground beef in my chili and chicken with my lunch. One pound of beef requires 1,799 gallons of water. Broken down, this is irrigation water for grain and feed, grasses for feed, and additional water for the cow to drink and process. One pound of chicken requires 468 gallons of water. This includes irrigation

water for grain or feed and additional water for drinking and processing. The beer I drank this weekend required 689 gallons of water to produce one gallon. Most of this water is for the growth of barley.

As for non-food sources, clothing requires more water than most people would think. One t-shirt requires 713 gallons of water. Almost half of this is for irrigation and another 41 percent is rainwater that evaporates off the cotton fields. The last 14 percent of the water is for treating wastewater from fields and factories.

Less than one third of 1% of the 3% of fresh water globally is available for human use. The rest of the water is frozen in glaciers or polar ice caps, or is out of our range and unable to use. Water is becoming an extremely limited resource that is being shared with more and more people as the population continues to increase. There are impacts of excessive consumption. Water consumption in agriculture alters natural water cycles, degradation of water bodies is on the rise, reservoirs alter stream-flows and are the cause of loss of high quality agricultural land, and maintaining infrastructure for water supply and use is very expensive. Of course, there are benefits to preserving our global water supply. Many programs are implemented to protect this rapidly depleting resource, but it is up to us to preserve what is left for future generations.

http://www.waterwise.org.uk/pages/embedded-water.html

http://environment.nationalgeographic.com/environment/freshwater/embedded-water/

http://www.waterwise.org.uk/pages/why-we-need-to-save-water.html

http://waterfootprint.org/en/

Sulfur Dioxide and Nitrogen Dioxide and Its Affect on Lichen Growth

Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is one in a group of highly reactive gasses. Fossil fuel combustion at power plants and other industrial facilities is one of the largest sources of sulfur dioxide emissions. Extracting metal from ore and burning of high sulfur containing fuels by locomotives, large ships, and non-road equipment are some smaller sources of sulfur dioxide emissions.

Short-term sulfur dioxide exposure may lead to respiratory effects such as bronchoconstriction and increased asthma symptoms. Children, the elderly, and asthmatics are three of the most susceptible populations that show agitation to sulfur dioxide. Sulfur dioxide has the potential to react with other compounds that are present in the atmosphere to form small particles that can deeply penetrate into the lungs. This can worsen, or even cause, respiratory diseases including emphysema and bronchitis. So2 may also irritate existing heart disease.

Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is another one in a group of high reactive gasses. Nitrogen dioxide is released into the air via cars, trucks, buses, power plants, and off-road equipment. NO2 contributes to the formation of ground-level ozone and fine particle pollution.

Similar to sulfur dioxide, short term exposure to nitrogen dioxide is linked to airway inflammation in health populations and increased respiratory symptoms in populations with asthma. NO2 levels are sometimes 30 to 100% higher in areas within 50 meters of roadways than those areas away from roadways. Children, the elderly, and those with asthma are susceptible populations to adverse health effects from nitrogen dioxide exposure.

NO2 may react with ammonia, moisture, and other compounds in the air to form small particles. These small particles have the potential to deeply penetrate the lungs and can cause or worsen respiratory diseases such as emphysema and bronchitis, as well as agitate pre-existing heart disease. Ozone forms when nitrogen oxide and organic compounds react in the presence of heat and sunlight. Populations at-risk for adverse health effects when exposed to ozone include children, the elderly, those with lung diseases, and people who work or exercise outside. Ozone can cause reduced lung function and increased respiratory symptoms.

Lichens represent a symbiotic relationship between a fungus and an algae. Lichens absorb minerals and water, even when there is a low concentration in the air. Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide are just two of the many pollutants that can harm lichens. Airborne compounds such as NO2 cause lichen substrates to be more alkaline. Lichens in different areas exposed to different compounds have various tolerances and requirements. If a species such as Candelaria Concolor or Physica Milegrana is found in an area that is not naturally nitrogen rich, this is an indicatory that nitrogen deposition in this area is anthropogenically enhanced. Sulfur dioxide, on the other hand, disrupts important physiological processes in lichens. Easily absorbed, SO2 has an acidifying effect on the lichens. Some species are more sensitive than others, and, therefore, the presence of a sensitive species of lichen means that sulfur dioxide levels are, more than likely, under the standard level. A “lichen desert”, an area where there are little to no lichens present, may be the result of high sulfur dioxide concentrations. These areas are more likely to have a tolerant species’ growth. 

Sources:

http://www.amnh.org/learn-teach/young-naturalist-awards/winning-essays2/2007-winning-essays/lichens-as-indicators-of-vehicle-pollution

http://www.epa.gov/airquality/sulfurdioxide/

http://www.epa.gov/airquality/sulfurdioxide/health.html

http://gis.nacse.org/lichenair/?page=airpollution#Nresponse

http://www.epa.gov/airquality/nitrogenoxides/health.html

http://www.epa.gov/airquality/nitrogenoxides/basic.html

State Implementation Plans

SIP, or State Implementation Plans, are plans for each state that identify how that state will attain or maintain the primary and secondary National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) as mentioned in the Clean Air Act. SIPs packages and revisions are prepared and submitted to the U.S. EPA to modify, revise, or update existing plans. Often these documents are related for public comment and the Ohio EPA will accept comments at a public forum; this information is found in major newspapers and the Ohio EPA website.

There are six criteria air pollutants: Sulfur Dioxide (SO₂), Nitrogen Dioxide (NO₂), Particulate Matter (PM), Carbon Monoxide (CO), Ozone (O₃) and Lead (PB). As of 2008, there is an eight-hour standard of 0.075 parts per million (ppm) for ozone; the 2012 annual standard for particulate matter is 12.0 micrograms per cubic meter of air (μg/m3); the 2010 one-hour primary NO₂ standard is 100 parts per billion (ppb); the 2010 one-hour primary standard of 75 parts per billion (ppb); the 2008 standard for lead is 0.15 micrograms per cubic meter of air (μg/m3).

For a state to be in nonattainment, there has to have been a failure to meet NAAQS standards. Therefore, attainment means that a state has met NAAQS standards. The entire state of Ohio is in attainment for particulate matter, nitrogen dioxide, and carbon monoxide. There are portions of Ohio that are in nonattainment for ozone, sulfur dioxide, and lead. 

Ohio has an air monitoring section that has several goals: to determine compliance with the ambient air quality standards; provide real-time monitoring of air pollution episodes; provide data for trend analyses; regulation evaluation and planning; and provide daily information to the public concerning the quality of the air in high population areas, near major emission sources, and in rural areas. There are agencies in Akron, Canton, Cleveland, Southwest Ohio, Dayton, Portsmouth, Toledo, Lake County, and Mahoning-Trumbull. Various locations in these cities have sites that measure particular pollutants for that area. This includes rural, urban, and agricultural settings for an unbiased detection. All sites have monitoring objectives and spatial scales and the sites are dispersed on land used for commercial and industrial purposes. All of the plans in the air monitoring plan are subject to approval by the U.S. EPA.

Ohio’s carbon monoxide air monitoring sites are located in Akron, Canton, Columbus, Cleveland, Cincinnati, Mentor, Dayton, New Paris, and Warrensville Hts. Ohio’s lead/metals air monitoring sites are located in Canton, Columbus, Cleveland, Warrensville Hts., Middletown, Cincinnati, Hubbard, East Liverpool, Delta, Marion, Moraine, and Bellfontaine. Ohio’s nitrogen dioxide air monitoring sites are located in Columbus, Cleveland, Warrensville Hts., and Cincinnati. Ohio’s particulate matter air monitoring sites are located in Columbus, Cleveland, Newburgh Hts., Brookpark, Middletown, Cincinnati, Lockland, Fairport, Youngstown, Warren, Sheffield, East Liverpool, Ironton, Portsmouth, Yellow Springs, Moraine, New Paris, Brilliant, and Steubenville. Ohio’s ozone air monitoring sites are located in Lafayette Twp., Franklin Twp., Akron, Canton, Brewster, Alliance, Delaware, New Albany, Columbus, Centerburg, Heath, London, Cleveland, Berea, Mayfield Hts., Hamilton, Batavia, Cincinnati, Cleves, Lebanon, Munson, Eastlake, Painesville, Youngstown, Kinsman, Vienna, Conneaut, Sheffield, Lima, Bowling Green, Wilgus, Ironton, Springfield, Enon, Xenia, Castown, Dayton, New Paris, Steubenville, Marietta, Wilmington, Toledo, Waterville, and Curtice. Ohio’s sulfur dioxide air monitoring sites are located in Akron, Columbus, Cleveland, Newburgh Hts., Middletown, Cleves, Cincinnati, Eastlake, Painseville, Youngstown, Conneaut, East Liverpool, Lima, West Union, Ironton, Portsmouth, Enon, New Paris, Shadyside, Steubenville, Pomeroy, Hackney, and Toledo.